Table 1.

A representative1list of experimental studies of primate locomotion

SourceTaxaDataMovement(s)
Cartmill et al., 2002  All T TQ, AQ 
Hildebrand, 1967  All T TQ 
Larson, 1998; Larson et al., 1999, 2001  All K TQ, AQ 
Lemelin and Schmitt, 1998  All K TQ, AQ 
Reynolds, 1985  All T, FP TQ 
Reynolds, 1987  All T, K TQ, TB 
Vilensky, 1987, 1989; Vilensky and Gehlsen, 1984; Vilensky and Larson, 1989  All T, K, EMG TQ 
Aerts et al., 2000  Hom T TQ, TB 
Chang et al., 1997, 2000; Bertram and Chang, 2001  Hom FP AS 
D'Aout et al., 2002  Hom T, K TQ, TB 
Elftman, 1944; Elftman and Manter, 1935  Hom K, T TB 
Jenkins, 1972  Hom K TB 
Kimura, 1990, 1991, 1996  Hom T, En TQ 
Larson and Stern, 1986, 1987  Hom EMG TQ, AQ, R 
Larson et al., 1991  Hom EMG AS, TQ, R 
Larson, 1988, 1989  Hom EMG AS 
Okada and Kondo, 1982; Okada, 1985  Hom EMG TB 
Prost, 1967, 1980  Hom K, T TQ, TB, VC 
Shapiro et al., 1997  Hom EMG, T TQ 
Stern and Larson, 2001  Hom EMG TQ, AS 
Stern and Susman, 1981  Hom EMG TQ, TB, VC 
Susman, 1983  Hom K TQ, TB 
Swartz et al., 1989  Hom BS AS 
Tardieu et al., 1993  Hom K TB 
Tuttle and Basmajian, 1974a,b,c, 1977, 1978a,b;Tuttle et al., 1983, 1992  Hom EMG TQ, TB, AS 
Wunderlich and Jungers, 1998; Wunderlich and Ford, 2000  Hom Pr TQ, AQ 
Yamazaki and Ishida, 1984  Hom K, T TB, VC 
Jenkins et al., 1978  NWM K, C, AS 
Prost and Sussman, 1969  NWM K, T IQ 
Schmitt 2003a  NWM FP, K, T, AQ, TQ 
Turnquist et al., 1999  NWM K AS 
Vilensky and Patrick, 1985; NWM T, K TQ 
Vilensky et al., 1994  NWM T, K IQ 
Fleagle et al., 1981  NWM, Hom EMG, BS VC, TQ, TB 
Ishida et al., 1985  NWM, Hom EMG TQ, TB 
Jungers and Stern, 1980, 1981, 1984  NWM, Hom EMG AS 
Stern et al. 1977, 1980  NWM, Hom EMG AQ, VC 
Taylor and Rowntree, 1973  NWM, Hom En TQ 
Hirasaki et al., 1993, 1995, 2000  NWM, OWM T, K, FP, EMG VC 
Prost, 1965, 1969  NWM, OWM T TQ 
Kimura et al., 1979; Kimura, 1985, 1992  NWM, OWM, Hom FP TQ 
Kimura et al., 1983  NWM, OWM, Hom T TQ, TB 
Schmitt and Larson, 1995  NWM, OWM, Hom K TQ, AQ 
Vangor and Wells, 1983  NWM, OWM, Hom EMG TQ, TB, VC 
Wunderlich and Schmitt, 2000  NWM, OWM, Hom K TQ, AQ 
Demes et al., 1994  OWM BS TQ 
Larson and Stern, 1989; 1992  OWM EMG TQ 
Meldrum, 1991  OWM K, T AQ, TQ 
Polk, 2002  OWM T, FP, K TQ 
Rollinson and Martin, 1981  OWM T AQ, TQ 
Schmitt et al., 1994  OWM EMG TQ 
Wells and Wood, 1975  OWM K TQ, L 
Schmitt, 1994, 1998, 1999, 2003b  OWM K, FP TQ, AQ 
Vilensky, 1980, 1983, 1988; Vilensky and Gankiewicz, 1986, 1990; Vilensky et al., 1986, 1990, 1991  OWM K, T TQ 
Whitehead and Larson, 1994  OWM K, C, EMG TQ 
Alexander and Maloiy, 1984  OWM, Hom T TQ 
Shapiro and Jungers, 1988, 1994  OWM, Hom EMG, T TQ, TB, VC 
Anapol and Jungers, 1987  Pro EMG, T TQ, L 
Demes et al., 1990  Pro T AQ 
Demes et al., 1998, 2001  Pro FP L 
Gunther, 1991  Pro FP, EMG L 
Ishida et al., 1990  Pro T, FP AQ 
Jouffroy, 1983; Jouffroy and Gasc, 1974; Jouffroy et al., 1974  Pro K, C AQ 
Jouffroy and Petter, 1990  Pro T, K, AQ 
Jouffroy and Stern, 1990  Pro EMG AQ 
Jungers and Anapol, 1985  Pro T, EMG TQ 
Schmidt and Fischer, 2000  Pro K, C AQ 
Schmitt and Lemelin, 2002  Pro FP TQ, AQ 
Shapiro et al., 2001  Pro K AQ 
Stevens, 2001; Stevens et al., 2001  Pro K, T AQ, IAQ 
SourceTaxaDataMovement(s)
Cartmill et al., 2002  All T TQ, AQ 
Hildebrand, 1967  All T TQ 
Larson, 1998; Larson et al., 1999, 2001  All K TQ, AQ 
Lemelin and Schmitt, 1998  All K TQ, AQ 
Reynolds, 1985  All T, FP TQ 
Reynolds, 1987  All T, K TQ, TB 
Vilensky, 1987, 1989; Vilensky and Gehlsen, 1984; Vilensky and Larson, 1989  All T, K, EMG TQ 
Aerts et al., 2000  Hom T TQ, TB 
Chang et al., 1997, 2000; Bertram and Chang, 2001  Hom FP AS 
D'Aout et al., 2002  Hom T, K TQ, TB 
Elftman, 1944; Elftman and Manter, 1935  Hom K, T TB 
Jenkins, 1972  Hom K TB 
Kimura, 1990, 1991, 1996  Hom T, En TQ 
Larson and Stern, 1986, 1987  Hom EMG TQ, AQ, R 
Larson et al., 1991  Hom EMG AS, TQ, R 
Larson, 1988, 1989  Hom EMG AS 
Okada and Kondo, 1982; Okada, 1985  Hom EMG TB 
Prost, 1967, 1980  Hom K, T TQ, TB, VC 
Shapiro et al., 1997  Hom EMG, T TQ 
Stern and Larson, 2001  Hom EMG TQ, AS 
Stern and Susman, 1981  Hom EMG TQ, TB, VC 
Susman, 1983  Hom K TQ, TB 
Swartz et al., 1989  Hom BS AS 
Tardieu et al., 1993  Hom K TB 
Tuttle and Basmajian, 1974a,b,c, 1977, 1978a,b;Tuttle et al., 1983, 1992  Hom EMG TQ, TB, AS 
Wunderlich and Jungers, 1998; Wunderlich and Ford, 2000  Hom Pr TQ, AQ 
Yamazaki and Ishida, 1984  Hom K, T TB, VC 
Jenkins et al., 1978  NWM K, C, AS 
Prost and Sussman, 1969  NWM K, T IQ 
Schmitt 2003a  NWM FP, K, T, AQ, TQ 
Turnquist et al., 1999  NWM K AS 
Vilensky and Patrick, 1985; NWM T, K TQ 
Vilensky et al., 1994  NWM T, K IQ 
Fleagle et al., 1981  NWM, Hom EMG, BS VC, TQ, TB 
Ishida et al., 1985  NWM, Hom EMG TQ, TB 
Jungers and Stern, 1980, 1981, 1984  NWM, Hom EMG AS 
Stern et al. 1977, 1980  NWM, Hom EMG AQ, VC 
Taylor and Rowntree, 1973  NWM, Hom En TQ 
Hirasaki et al., 1993, 1995, 2000  NWM, OWM T, K, FP, EMG VC 
Prost, 1965, 1969  NWM, OWM T TQ 
Kimura et al., 1979; Kimura, 1985, 1992  NWM, OWM, Hom FP TQ 
Kimura et al., 1983  NWM, OWM, Hom T TQ, TB 
Schmitt and Larson, 1995  NWM, OWM, Hom K TQ, AQ 
Vangor and Wells, 1983  NWM, OWM, Hom EMG TQ, TB, VC 
Wunderlich and Schmitt, 2000  NWM, OWM, Hom K TQ, AQ 
Demes et al., 1994  OWM BS TQ 
Larson and Stern, 1989; 1992  OWM EMG TQ 
Meldrum, 1991  OWM K, T AQ, TQ 
Polk, 2002  OWM T, FP, K TQ 
Rollinson and Martin, 1981  OWM T AQ, TQ 
Schmitt et al., 1994  OWM EMG TQ 
Wells and Wood, 1975  OWM K TQ, L 
Schmitt, 1994, 1998, 1999, 2003b  OWM K, FP TQ, AQ 
Vilensky, 1980, 1983, 1988; Vilensky and Gankiewicz, 1986, 1990; Vilensky et al., 1986, 1990, 1991  OWM K, T TQ 
Whitehead and Larson, 1994  OWM K, C, EMG TQ 
Alexander and Maloiy, 1984  OWM, Hom T TQ 
Shapiro and Jungers, 1988, 1994  OWM, Hom EMG, T TQ, TB, VC 
Anapol and Jungers, 1987  Pro EMG, T TQ, L 
Demes et al., 1990  Pro T AQ 
Demes et al., 1998, 2001  Pro FP L 
Gunther, 1991  Pro FP, EMG L 
Ishida et al., 1990  Pro T, FP AQ 
Jouffroy, 1983; Jouffroy and Gasc, 1974; Jouffroy et al., 1974  Pro K, C AQ 
Jouffroy and Petter, 1990  Pro T, K, AQ 
Jouffroy and Stern, 1990  Pro EMG AQ 
Jungers and Anapol, 1985  Pro T, EMG TQ 
Schmidt and Fischer, 2000  Pro K, C AQ 
Schmitt and Lemelin, 2002  Pro FP TQ, AQ 
Shapiro et al., 2001  Pro K AQ 
Stevens, 2001; Stevens et al., 2001  Pro K, T AQ, IAQ 

Pro, prosimian; NWM, New World monkey; OWM, Old World Monkey; Hom,hominoid; All, representative species from all of the above.

FP, force plate; K, kinematics; T, temporal characters; EMG,electromyography; BS, bone strain; En, energetics; Pr, pressure; C,cineradiography.

TQ, terrestrial quadrupedalism; AQ, arboreal quadrupedalism; IQ, inclined quadrupedalism (flat substrate); IAQ, inclined quadrupedalism (pole); L,leaping; AS, arm-swinging; TB, terrestrial bipedalism; R, reaching.

Reviews of many experimental studies can be found in Fleagle(1979), Jouffroy(1989), and Churchill and Schmitt (2003).

This table does not include studies by anthropologists that focus solely on human bipedalism, such as Li et al.(1996), Schmitt et al.(1996, 1999) or Crompton et al.(1998).

1

This is not an exhaustive list of all studies on primate locomotion. I have included those studies that focus specifically on primate locomotor mechanics primarily in a laboratory setting. I apologize to anyone who was excluded.

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