As fish approach fatigue at high water velocities in a critical swimming speed (Ucrit) test, their swimming mode and oxygen cascade typically move to an unsteady state because they adopt an unsteady, burst-and-glide swimming mode despite a constant, imposed workload. However, conventional rate of oxygen uptake (O2) sampling intervals (5–20 min) tend to smooth any dynamic fluctuations in active O2 (O2active) and thus likely underestimate the peak O2active. Here, we used rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) to explore the dynamic nature of O2active near Ucrit using various sampling windows and an iterative algorithm. Compared with a conventional interval regression analysis of O2active over a 10-min period, our new analytical approach generated a 23% higher peak O2active. Therefore, we suggest that accounting for such dynamics in O2active with this new analytical approach may lead to more accurate estimates of maximum O2 in fishes.

Many disciplines in biology use the maximum rate of oxygen uptake (O2max) attained by an animal both as an index of cardiorespiratory fitness and to better understand aerobic capabilities. Human physiologists typically assess O2max using a graded exercise test to fatigue (Albouaini et al., 2007; Dlugosz et al., 2013), with the rate of oxygen uptake (O2) peaking despite a further increase in the imposed workload (Taylor et al., 1955). Although testing protocols used with humans are still debated (Robergs et al., 2010; Beltz et al., 2016; Poole and Jones, 2017; Van Breda et al., 2017; Green and Askew, 2018), they all benefit from some average of breath-to-breath O2 measurements. Fish physiologists also use graded exercise tests to estimate O2max, e.g. a critical swimming speed (Ucrit) test, which remains a valid testing protocol despite dating back over 70 years (Fry and Hart, 1948; Beamish, 1964; Brett, 1964), as recently discussed along with the exhaustive chasing testing protocol (Norin and Clark, 2016; Zhang and Gilbert, 2017). In fact, nearly all Ucrit tests that measure O2 have assigned O2max to the peak value for active O2 (O2active) during swimming. However, when fish approach fatigue in Ucrit tests, they typically supplement their sustainable steady swimming gait with a burst-and-glide swimming gait (Peake and Farrell, 2004, 2005, 2006). Consequently, O2active may become dynamic as swimming gait changes typically during the penultimate and/or final water velocity increment (Ufinal). Unfortunately, because breath-to-breath O2 measurements are nearly impossible with a swim tunnel, a typical sampling period to estimate O2active (e.g. 5–20 min) is too long to measure such gait dynamics, and peak O2active could be smoothed out, potentially underestimating O2max.

Therefore, we reasoned that minimizing the duration of the sampling window would improve the temporal resolution for O2active and O2max determinations, as well as help with the application of more consistent criteria. To date, sampling windows have varied considerably for the two most common testing protocols used with fishes: from 5 to 60 min for Ucrit tests (e.g. Fry and Hart, 1948; Brett, 1964; Bushnell et al., 1994; Nelson et al., 1996; McKenzie et al., 2001; Gallaugher et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2003a,b; Claireaux et al., 2005, 2006; Marras et al., 2010; Svendsen et al., 2010; Ejbye-Ernst et al., 2016; Di Santo et al., 2017) and from 0.5 to 60 min for chase-to-exhaustion tests (Lucas and Priede, 1992; Reidy et al., 1995; Norin and Malte, 2011; Clark et al., 2012, 2013; Norin and Clark, 2016; Norin et al., 2014; Gräns et al., 2014; Auer et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2017). Fortunately, fibre optic oxygen sensors greatly facilitate exploration of the dynamic nature of O2active in fishes by having a fast response time (<15 s; pyroscience.com/index.html), unlike early swim tunnel respirometry that had to use the Winkler method (Winkler, 1888) to follow the decline in dissolved oxygen (DO) over lengthy periods (30–60 min) to estimate O2active.

Also, we examined an alternative to applying a high coefficient of determination (e.g. R2>0.95) for linear regressions of decline in water DO concentration for O2active determinations, which is a recommended criterion when determining O2 with closed respirometry (Svendsen et al., 2016). Although a minimum R2 is certainly satisfactory for estimating standard metabolic rate (Chabot et al., 2016a,b) and a steady O2active, capturing rapid changes in O2active by minimizing the sampling window unfortunately reduces the number of measurements in the regression, which can decrease R2 (Cornell and Berger, 1987). Therefore, as a new analytical approach with swim-tunnel respirometer to reduce the reliance on R2, we determined the conservative minimum sampling window needed to reliably measure the background O2 of the respirometer, i.e. a stable, but very low O2, and to reliably measure a stable O2active for a fish swimming steadily (∼50% Ucrit). Using this minimum sampling window in conjunction with an iterative mathematical algorithm, we then explored the dynamics of O2active while rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) transitioned from steady to burst-and-glide swimming modes as they approached fatigue at Ucrit. Specifically, we used these methods to test the null hypothesis that an O2 estimate is independent of the sampling window duration and whether it is analysed by an iterative algorithm. If rejected, we predicted that dynamics in O2active would be related to dynamic swimming behaviour, which we assessed semi-quantitatively.

List of symbols and abbreviations
     
  • DO

    dissolved oxygen

  •  
  • O2

    rate of oxygen uptake

  •  
  • O2active

    O2 as measured when an animal exercises at any workload above rest.

  •  
  • O2max

    maximum O2

  •  
  • U

    water velocity in the swim tunnel respirometer

  •  
  • Ucrit

    critical swimming speed

  •  
  • Ufinal

    final water velocity increment in which a fish fatigues

Experimental animals

Animal holding and experimental procedures were approved by the University of British Columbia Animal Care Committee (A16-0049, A15-0035 and A15-0266). A hatchery-reared, river-dwelling strain (Blackwater) of rainbow trout [Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum 1792)] was obtained from Fraser Valley Trout Hatchery (Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada; Freshwater Fisheries Society of BC) and held at 14°C in 200-litre circular tanks containing dechlorinated Vancouver tap water in the Zoology Aquatic Facility. Water temperature was monitored daily and fish were fed a daily maintenance ration of commercial trout pellets (Skretting Canada Inc., Vancouver, BC, Canada).

Experimental protocol

Swimming performance trials were conducted with 14 fish (body mass: 69.1±3.2 g) that were fasted for 48 h. Individual fish were placed in a 10-litre swim tunnel (Loligo systems, Tjele, Denmark; water volume to fish mass ratio=144) in a thermally regulated laboratory (14°C) where the fish habituated for 1 h to the swimming section (40×10×10 cm) at a water velocity (U) of ∼0.5 body lengths (BL) s−1. The swim tunnel was shaded with an opaque curtain to minimize visual disturbances through the transparent swim section of the respirometer. A ramp-Ucrit protocol (Jain et al., 1997) increased U up to ∼40% of Ucrit (4 cm s−1 every 1 min for 5 min), after which U was increased in increments of 9 cm s−1 (i.e. ∼10% of Ucrit) every 20 min until the fish reached a fatigue velocity (Fig. S1), as previously recommended (Farlinger and Beamish, 1977; Hammer, 1995). Fish were deemed fatigued when they remained on the rear grid of the swimming section for >5 s. A ramp-Ucrit protocol assumes that salmonids can swim aerobically for sustained periods at <50% Ucrit (Beamish, 1978; Hammer, 1995). Following the ramp, the present study had five to seven U increments of 20 min duration before fish became fatigued; total test duration was <130 min. Validation of the ramp-Ucrit protocol (and its earlier versions, Randall et al., 1987; Brauner et al., 1994) has been performed for wild and hatchery-reared salmonids in a variety of field and laboratory conditions (Farrell et al., 1998; Jain et al., 1998; Lee et al., 2003a,b).

DO in the water (expressed as % air saturation) was measured (∼1 s interval) with a fibre optic probe (Robust Oxygen Probe OXROB10, PyroScience GmbH, Aachen, Germany) mounted in the centre of the flow straightening vanes ahead of the swimming section to allow proper water mixing. A flush pump (Universal 2400, EHEIM GmbH & Co KG, Deizisau, Germany), attached via a one-way outflow valve to the swim tunnel, was manually controlled to maintain DO above 80% every time the respirometer was closed to measure O2. We deliberately avoided flushing the swim tunnel during the transition to Ufinal so we could follow the dynamics of O2active immediately after the speed transition.

Swim behaviour was recorded with an infrared camera (1000TVL, Zosi Technology, Hong Kong, China) mounted ∼1 m above the swim tunnel and was semi-quantitatively analysed using a behavioural event logging software (BORIS; Friard and Gamba, 2016). We scored four mutually exclusive swimming modes that extended beyond an earlier semi-quantitative assessment (Farrell and Clutterham, 2003). These four modes accounted for all observed behaviours and were: (1) maintaining station (M) using a steady swimming mode and with only minor drift; (2) burst-and-glide swimming (B) with repeated cycles of forward progress followed by backwards drift; (3) intense burst swimming (I), where a fish reached the front of the swim section and sustained its swimming effort against the grid without gaining any forward progress; and (4) resting (R), when a fish ceased swimming activity and drifted back against the rear grid (<5 s). The total time spent in each of these four swimming modes is reported as a proportion of a 20-min swimming period.

Data analysis

Obtaining the minimum duration of a sampling window for a reliable O2 measurement

The background O2 of a respirometer, which is routinely recorded in such studies, has a very low signal-to-noise ratio but is stable over a 20-min period. In contrast, O2active when a fish is swimming steadily at an intermediate water velocity (e.g. 50% Ucrit) provides a much larger signal. Therefore, both signals were used to determine the minimum duration of a sampling window for a reliable O2 measurement, i.e. determine the shortest sampling window while still minimizing the variance around the O2 estimate. We used five 20-min DO traces of background O2 over 20 min (N=5) (see Eqn 1) using different durations for the sampling windows (i.e. 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 1.8, 2, 2.2, 2.5, 2.7, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5 and 5.0 min):
(1)

where O2 is calculated in mg O2 h−1 kg−1, dDO/dt is the slope of DO saturation over time, Vr is the volume of the respirometer, Vf is the volume of the fish, SO is oxygen solubility at 14°C freshwater at 1 atm, t is the time constant (3600 s), Mf is the fish mass, a is measurement duration (s), i is 1 s forward from the end of previous measurement interval until the last sampling window, where 1 s is the sampling frequency. This generated a minimum of four and a maximum of 25 estimates of the same O2, each having the same inherent noise level, from which we determined the mean, standard deviation (s.d.) and coefficient of variation (CV) as a function of the duration of the sampling window (Fig. 1). Given that the background O2 represents a worst-case scenario in terms of signal-to-noise ratio (peak O2active was at least 70 times larger), O2active at ∼50% Ucrit (see Fig. 1C,D) typically provided a less steady but much larger signal to explore even shorter sampling window durations (0.20, 0.35, 0.50, 0.80, 1.0 and 1.5 min). This generated a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 76 estimates of O2active that were used to calculate the mean, s.d., CV and R2 for each sampling window. Data were log transformed to achieve normality and homogeneity of residuals. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc tests were conducted to compare the differences among the pooled data for the mean, s.d., CV and R2 as a function of sampling duration.

Fig. 1.

An analysis of variation in sampling window duration for an individual estimate of rate of oxygen uptake (O2; n=5). (A,B) A 20-min background in the respirometer; (C,D) a 15-min measurement of O2active of a rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) swimming steadily at ∼50% of critical swimming speed (Ucrit). (A) Means and standard deviations (s.d.) for the individual O2 determinations (mean±s.e.m.). (B) Coefficient of variation (CV) for the individual O2 determinations (mean±s.e.m.). The suggested 1.5-min minimum duration of sampling window is indicated by a vertical dashed line (red). (C) Mean and CV for the individual O2active determinations (mean±range). (D) Coefficient of determination (R2) for the individual O2active determinations (mean±s.d.). Statistical differences (P<0.05; one-way ANOVA) are indicated by either an asterisk or different letters, while the horizontal black lines indicate stable minimum values for s.d. and CV.

Fig. 1.

An analysis of variation in sampling window duration for an individual estimate of rate of oxygen uptake (O2; n=5). (A,B) A 20-min background in the respirometer; (C,D) a 15-min measurement of O2active of a rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) swimming steadily at ∼50% of critical swimming speed (Ucrit). (A) Means and standard deviations (s.d.) for the individual O2 determinations (mean±s.e.m.). (B) Coefficient of variation (CV) for the individual O2 determinations (mean±s.e.m.). The suggested 1.5-min minimum duration of sampling window is indicated by a vertical dashed line (red). (C) Mean and CV for the individual O2active determinations (mean±range). (D) Coefficient of determination (R2) for the individual O2active determinations (mean±s.d.). Statistical differences (P<0.05; one-way ANOVA) are indicated by either an asterisk or different letters, while the horizontal black lines indicate stable minimum values for s.d. and CV.

Dynamic O2 and O2max determinations

Even though O2active varied among individuals at a given water velocity, O2 always increased for Ufinal (Fig. S1). Therefore, the detailed analysis (N=14 fish) of the dynamic nature of O2 was limited to Ufinal except when Ufinal was too short to analyse with the full range of sampling windows, in which case the penultimate step was included (see Fig. 2G). Changes in swimming gait were always observed. Also, a detailed analysis is presented for two representative fish that were swimming steadily at an intermediate U (mostly M mode). Each O2 analysis, which was timed to start at the onset of the new U, examined whether a longer sampling window duration dampened the dynamics of O2active. O2active was calculated using a conventional sequential interval regression analysis (Eqn 1) using consecutive 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 5 or 10-min durations for the sampling window (except when interrupted by a respirometer flush period). The mean R2 for these determinations was >0.93 regardless of the sampling window duration. Peak O2active was assigned to the greatest O2active for a given sampling window duration and all the 1.5-min estimates of O2active were averaged to generate the ∼20-min estimate. However, the conventional sequential interval regression analysis cannot fully account for the dynamics of O2active. Therefore, we also used an iterative process to estimate peak O2active by conducting a rolling regression (termed an iterative algorithm; Eqn 2):
(2)
where n is a 1 s increment from the first DO measurement until the last (90th) DO measurement.
Fig. 2.

Examples of oxygen uptake (O2) dynamics (closed symbols) for individual rainbow trout during a Ucrit test with U expressed as a percentage of Ucrit. (A,B) Steady swimming at an intermediate U. (C–H) The final or penultimate U before fatigue. Some analyses continued into recovery (EPOC: excess post-exercise oxygen consumption; open symbols). Grey block indicates when the respirometer was being flushed. Different sampling window durations (1.5 to 10 min) used in a sequential interval regression analysis have different coloured lines (see key, which also shows R2 for each measurement method). The line of identity (grey dotted) is for the average of all 1.5-min O2 values for the entire swimming step (as shown in Fig. S1). The pie diagram represents the proportion of time the fish spent using different swimming behaviours: rest (R), maintain stationary (M), burst (B) and intense burst (I). The horizontal blue bars and associated letters indicate when these different swimming behaviours predominated.

Fig. 2.

Examples of oxygen uptake (O2) dynamics (closed symbols) for individual rainbow trout during a Ucrit test with U expressed as a percentage of Ucrit. (A,B) Steady swimming at an intermediate U. (C–H) The final or penultimate U before fatigue. Some analyses continued into recovery (EPOC: excess post-exercise oxygen consumption; open symbols). Grey block indicates when the respirometer was being flushed. Different sampling window durations (1.5 to 10 min) used in a sequential interval regression analysis have different coloured lines (see key, which also shows R2 for each measurement method). The line of identity (grey dotted) is for the average of all 1.5-min O2 values for the entire swimming step (as shown in Fig. S1). The pie diagram represents the proportion of time the fish spent using different swimming behaviours: rest (R), maintain stationary (M), burst (B) and intense burst (I). The horizontal blue bars and associated letters indicate when these different swimming behaviours predominated.

This iterative algorithm repeatedly advanced the shortest reliable sampling window (1.5 min) by a single DO measurement through the DO data rather than using sequential intervals. Mean values for the various estimates of peak O2active were compared with a repeated-measures (mixed-effects model) one-way ANOVA. If necessary, data were log transformed to meet the assumptions of normality of residuals. We predicted that the highest estimate of peak O2active would be that generated by the iterative algorithm used with a 1.5-min sampling window. In this case, we would reject our null hypothesis that the estimate of O2max was independent of the duration of the sampling window and the mathematical analysis of it.

Data analysis and presentation were completed in GraphPad 8.0 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA), Labchart 8.0 (ADInstruments, Colorado Springs, CO, USA) and Excel 16.2 (Redmond, WA, USA). Statistical significance was assigned when α<0.05.

As expected, the mean value of the constant background O2 of the respirometer was independent of the sampling window duration (Fig. 1). However, reliability in the background O2 estimate was dependent on the duration of the sampling window because s.d. and CV both decreased with the sampling window duration, with CV stabilizing for a sampling window duration ≥1.5 min, and s.d. stabilizing after 2.5 min (Fig. 1A,B). Thus, depending on the criterion (CV or s.d.), the minimum sampling window duration for this very low O2 signal was between 1.5 and 2.5 min.

Despite anticipating an even shorter duration of sampling window for a fish swimming steadily (Fig. 1C,D), the larger O2active signal had a greater noise level given that s.d. and CV increased with a sampling window duration <1.5 min. In fact, spurious negative O2active values occurred with a 0.5-min sampling window. Also, R2 decreased significantly (P≤0.015) with a sampling window duration <1.5 min (Fig. 1), so we adopted 1.5 min as a conservative minimum sampling window duration for peak O2active analysis. Because a universal requirement for fish respirometry is a background O2 check, the variance of this signal could be applied broadly with future respirometry studies as the primary criterion to set the sampling window duration. Analysis of a stable O2active of sufficient duration could be an additional quality control.

By not relying on the R2 value as the sole quality criterion for regression analysis of DO (Svendsen et al., 2016; Chabot et al., 2016a,b), we did not restrict our analysis of O2 dynamics as rainbow trout approach fatigue. Nevertheless, we included R2 as a secondary reference criterion. Regardless of the sampling window duration, the lowest R2 among all our dynamic O2active estimates was 0.77 and 80% of the values were ≥0.90, as is commonly prescribed. Importantly, the average R2 value for all 1.5-min sampling window was 0.95 (lowest=0.91) using a sequential interval regression and 0.94 (lowest=0.83) using an iterative algorithm. Thus, our approach did not markedly sacrifice quality as measured by R2 alone. The important message is that rather than unnecessarily lengthening the duration of the sampling window to improve R2 (and possibly underestimate O2active), an iterative algorithm can better detect dynamics in O2active without rejecting data because of an unsatisfactory R2.

A sampling window lasting around 1.5-min may have technical and biological merits. Both the water mixing time in the swim tunnel (e.g. Rodgers et al., 2016) and the blood transit time around the circulatory system of a fish have a similar duration (1–2 min: Cameron and Polhemus, 1974; Maren and Swenson, 1980; Hughes et al., 1981; Harter et al., 2018). Whether 1.5-min is an appropriate minimum sampling window for O2 measurements in other fish species and test apparatuses can be checked using the methodology applied here, but we recognize that sampling window duration could easily change whenever the signal-to-noise ratio changes with different testing apparatuses.

Despite the constant imposed workload, the O2active of rainbow trout swimming at Ufinal (Fig. 2) was dynamic, which contrasted with a steady swimming mode at an intermediate U (Fig. 2A–C). Indeed, whenever swimming gait varied during Ufinal, O2active usually changed (Fig. 2). Moreover, the dynamic nature of O2active was best revealed using a sampling window duration of 1.5 min in combination with the iterative algorithm. Thus, we reject our null hypothesis that peak O2active is independent of sampling window duration and the mathematical analysis method. Importantly, peak O2active estimated using a 1.5-min iterative algorithm was significantly higher (6–23%; P≤0.022) than the other analytical approaches used to estimate peak O2active (Table 1). Consequently, we recommend that future studies of O2max in fishes adopt an iterative algorithm using a minimum sampling window duration; one that minimizes variance of background O2.

Table 1.

Comparison of peak active oxygen uptake (peak O2active) determined with different sampling window durations (1.5 to 10 min) and two types of mathematical algorithms, an iterative algorithm and a sequential interval regression analysis

Comparison of peak active oxygen uptake (peak ṀO2active) determined with different sampling window durations (1.5 to 10 min) and two types of mathematical algorithms, an iterative algorithm and a sequential interval regression analysis
Comparison of peak active oxygen uptake (peak ṀO2active) determined with different sampling window durations (1.5 to 10 min) and two types of mathematical algorithms, an iterative algorithm and a sequential interval regression analysis

We semi-quantitatively assessed swimming behaviour to examine associations between swimming modes and O2active dynamics. Beyond individual variations (Fig. 2), we discovered clear spikes in O2active that coincided with the swimming modes that produced (or should produce) a ground speed, i.e. combining burst (B) and intense (I) burst swimming, or transitioning to burst swimming (B). Conversely, O2 decreased when a fish frequently rested on the rear grid (R), as expected. Thus, our analytical approach opens up the possibility of refining quantitative assessments of oxygen costs associated with swimming behaviour, as opposed to traditional determinations for the oxygen cost at an imposed U, which was 616.8 mg O2 h−1 kg−1 over the entire period for Ufinal in the present experiment, i.e. approximately 16% lower than the peak O2active. Given that fish likely show a variable willingness of to engage in burst swimming (e.g. Peake and Farrell, 2005), being able to resolve O2active dynamics may be important for studying behaviours that otherwise cannot be easily controlled.

Anaerobic metabolism largely powers burst swimming with fast-twitch, white muscles (Rome et al., 1984, 1985; Rome, 1990; Peake and Farrell, 2004), as evidenced by the accumulation of tissue lactate (Milligan, 1996). Moreover, O2 appears to peak and rapidly decline shortly after exercise to both exhaustion (e.g. Scarabello et al., 1992; Zhang et al., 2018a,b) and fatigue (Farrell et al., 1998; Wagner et al., 2005; Farrell, 2007; Eliason et al., 2013). Thus, the present finding where O2active peaks in association with periods of burst-and-glide swimming suggests a more rapid and partial repayment of this deferred oxygen cost (excess post-exercise oxygen consumption; EPOC). Unfortunately, our 1.5-min sampling window prevented precise pinpointing of the temporal association of transient peaks in O2active with the semi-quantitative analysis of swimming modes. Regardless, what we know is that venous oxygen content is temporarily depleted in association with burst swimming (Farrell and Clutterham, 2003). Therefore, when this oxygen-depleted blood reaches the gills, it would temporarily increase O2active provided cardiac output and arterial oxygen content are unchanged. Alternatively, white muscle recruitment could consume additional oxygen during burst-and-glide exercise (Moyes et al., 1992). Clearly, a more quantitative analysis of swimming behaviours in conjunction with dynamic O2active could provide a better insight into the mechanistic basis of these peaks in O2active associated with burst swimming during a Ucrit test.

We believe that adopting an iterative algorithm and a minimum duration for the sampling window based on criteria other than R2 may aid in the on-going deliberations over how best to induce and estimate O2max in fishes (Reidy et al., 1995; Sylvestre et al., 2007; Clark et al., 2013). O2max is also commonly estimated immediately following exhaustive exercise (Norin and Clark, 2016). Yet, as revealed here, the traditional 5–20 min sampling window to estimate O2active during a Ucrit test cannot properly capture O2 dynamics, and thereby underestimated peak O2 by 6–23%. Thus, given the rapidity with which O2max decays following exhaustive exercise (Scarabello et al., 1992; Zhang et al., 2018a,b), it seems reasonable to expect that post-exhaustion estimates of O2max would benefit in a similar way from using the analytical rigour of an iterative algorithm and a short sampling window. Indeed, applying uniform analytical approaches may help reconcile previously reported differences between O2max estimates based on chasing and swimming protocols. For instance, O2max estimated using the Ucrit test was 29% lower than the O2max estimate obtained after chasing Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) to exhaustion (Reidy et al., 1995). However, both estimates used a 20-min sampling window, which we suggest is far too long for either protocol for determining O2max given the present results. Conversely, Sylvestre et al. (2007) used an even longer sampling window (20–30 min for both methods) but found no difference in O2max for Atlantic cod with the same testing protocols. Applying new analytical rigour in determining O2max would match the rigour now applied when analysing standard O2 in fishes (Steffensen, 2002; Chabot et al., 2016a,b; Zhang et al., 2016), which may pave the way for a more accurate estimates of O2max and of aerobic metabolic capacity, a fundamental and influential trait in fish respiratory physiology.

In conclusion, beyond optimizing the respirometer water volume relative to fish mass so that the decline in DO can be easily followed when the respirometer is closed (Clark et al., 2013; Rodgers et al., 2016), we recommend fish respirometry studies use rigorous analysis procedure by examining the variance of background O2 in a respirometer as a reliable criterion to set minimum sampling window duration for measuring O2 and applying an iterative algorithm to identify peak O2active. Although we demonstrate this analytical approach is particularly useful for estimating the dynamics of O2active in athletic fishes, we suggest that these procedures and principles likely have a much wider applicability in aquatic respirometry.

We thank Evelyn Kuan and the Department of Zoology aquatic facility and workshop staff for their logistical assistance, as well as two anonymous reviewers for constructive comments on an earlier version of this manuscript.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: Y.Z., A.P.F.; Methodology: Y.Z.; Software: Y.Z.; Validation: Y.Z., M.J.H.G., A.P.F.; Formal analysis: Y.Z.; Investigation: Y.Z., M.J.H.G.; Resources: A.P.F.; Data curation: Y.Z.; Writing - original draft: Y.Z.; Writing - review & editing: Y.Z., A.P.F.; Visualization: Y.Z.; Supervision: A.P.F.; Project administration: Y.Z., A.P.F.; Funding acquisition: A.P.F.

Funding

Y.Z. holds an Elizabeth R. Howland Fellowship and a Pei-Huang Tung and Tan-Wen Tung Graduate Fellowship. M.J.H.G. holds a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarship. This work was funded by an NSERC Discovery Grant held by A.P.F., who also holds a Canada Research Chair Tier I.

Albouaini
,
K.
,
Egred
,
M.
,
Alahmar
,
A.
and
Wright
,
D. J.
(
2007
).
Cardiopulmonary exercise testing and its application
.
Postgrad. Med. J.
83
,
675
-
682
.
Auer
,
S. K.
,
Bassar
,
R. D.
,
Salin
,
K.
and
Metcalfe
,
N. B.
(
2016
).
Repeatability of metabolic rate is lower for animals living under field versus laboratory conditions
.
J. Exp. Biol.
219
,
631
-
634
.
Beamish
,
F. W. H.
(
1964
).
Respiration of fishes with special emphasis on standard oxygen consumption: ii. influence of weight and temperature on respiration of several species
.
Can. J. Zool.
42
,
177
-
188
.
Beamish
,
F. W. H.
(
1978
).
Swimming capacity
. In
Fish Physiology
, Vol.
7
(ed.
W. S.
Hoar
and
D. J.
Radall
), pp.
101
-
187
.
New York
:
Academic Press
.
Beltz
,
N. M.
,
Gibson
,
A. L.
,
Janot
,
J. M.
,
Kravitz
,
L.
,
Mermier
,
C. M.
and
Dalleck
,
L. C.
(
2016
).
Graded exercise testing protocols for the determination of
O2max: historical perspectives, progress, and future considerations
.
J. Sports Med.
2016
,
3968393
.
Brauner
,
C. J.
,
Iwama
,
G. K.
and
Randall
,
D. J.
(
1994
).
The effect of short-duration seawater exposure on the swimming performance of wild and hatchery-reared juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) during smoltification
.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
51
,
2188
-
2194
.
Brett
,
J. R.
(
1964
).
The respiratory metabolism and swimming performance of young sockeye salmon
.
J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
21
,
1183
-
1226
.
Bushnell
,
P. G.
,
Steffensen
,
J. F.
,
Schurmann
,
H.
and
Jones
,
D. R.
(
1994
).
Exercise metabolism in two species of cod in arctic waters
.
Polar Biol.
14
,
43
-
48
.
Cameron
,
J. N.
and
Polhemus
,
J. A.
(
1974
).
Theory of CO2 exchange in trout gills
.
J. Exp. Biol.
60
,
183
-
194
.
Chabot
,
D.
,
McKenzie
,
D. J.
and
Craig
,
J. F.
(
2016a
).
Metabolic rate in fishes: definitions, methods and significance for conservation physiology
.
J. Fish Biol.
88
,
1
-
9
.
Chabot
,
D.
,
Steffensen
,
J. F.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2016b
).
The determination of standard metabolic rate in fishes
.
J. Fish Biol.
88
,
81
-
121
.
Claireaux
,
G.
,
McKenzie
,
D. J.
,
Genge
,
A. G.
,
Chatelier
,
A.
,
Aubin
,
J.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2005
).
Linking swimming performance, cardiac pumping ability and cardiac anatomy in rainbow trout
.
J. Exp. Biol.
208
,
1775
-
1784
.
Claireaux
,
G.
,
Couturier
,
C.
and
Groison
,
A.-L.
(
2006
).
Effect of temperature on maximum swimming speed and cost of transport in juvenile European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)
.
J. Exp. Biol.
209
,
3420
-
3428
.
Clark
,
T. D.
,
Donaldson
,
M. R.
,
Pieperhoff
,
S.
,
Drenner
,
S. M.
,
Lotto
,
A.
,
Cooke
,
S. J.
,
Hinch
,
S. G.
,
Patterson
,
D. A.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2012
).
Physiological benefits of being small in a changing world: responses of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) to an acute thermal challenge and a simulated capture event
.
PLoS ONE
7
,
e39079
.
Clark
,
T. D.
,
Sandblom
,
E.
and
Jutfelt
,
F.
(
2013
).
Aerobic scope measurements of fishes in an era of climate change: respirometry, relevance and recommendations
.
J. Exp. Biol.
216
,
2771
-
2782
.
Cornell
,
J. A.
and
Berger
,
R. D.
(
1987
).
Factors that influence the value of the coefficient of determination in simple linear and nonlinear regression models
.
Phytopathology
77
,
63
-
70
.
Di Santo
,
V. D.
,
Kenaley
,
C. P.
and
Lauder
,
G. V.
(
2017
).
High postural costs and anaerobic metabolism during swimming support the hypothesis of a U-shaped metabolism–speed curve in fishes
.
Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA
,
201715141
.
Dlugosz
,
E. M.
,
Chappell
,
M. A.
,
Meek
,
T. H.
,
Szafrańska
,
P. A.
,
Zub
,
K.
,
Konarzewski
,
M.
,
Jones
,
J. H.
,
Bicudo
,
J. E. P.
,
Nespolo
,
R. F.
,
Careau
,
V.
, et al. 
(
2013
).
Phylogenetic analysis of mammalian maximal oxygen consumption during exercise
.
J. Exp. Biol.
216
,
4712
-
4721
.
Ejbye-Ernst
,
R.
,
Michaelsen
,
T. Y.
,
Tirsgaard
,
B.
,
Wilson
,
J. M.
,
Jensen
,
L. F.
,
Steffensen
,
J. F.
,
Pertoldi
,
C.
,
Aarestrup
,
K.
and
Svendsen
,
J. C.
(
2016
).
Partitioning the metabolic scope: the importance of anaerobic metabolism and implications for the oxygen- and capacity-limited thermal tolerance (OCLTT) hypothesis
.
Conserv. Physiol.
4
,
cow019
.
Eliason
,
E. J.
,
Clark
,
T. D.
,
Hinch
,
S. G.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2013
).
Cardiorespiratory performance and blood chemistry during swimming and recovery in three populations of elite swimmers: adult sockeye salmon
.
Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Mol. Integr. Physiol.
166
,
385
-
397
.
Farlinger
,
S.
and
Beamish
,
F. W. H.
(
1977
).
Effects of time and velocity increments on the critical swimming speed of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
106
,
436
-
439
.
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2007
).
Cardiorespiratory performance during prolonged swimming tests with salmonids: a perspective on temperature effects and potential analytical pitfalls
.
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci.
362
,
2017
-
2030
.
Farrell
,
A. P.
and
Clutterham
,
S. M.
(
2003
).
On-line venous oxygen tensions in rainbow trout during graded exercise at two acclimation temperatures
.
J. Exp. Biol.
206
,
487
-
496
.
Farrell
,
A. P.
,
Gamperl
,
A. K.
and
Birtwell
,
I. K.
(
1998
).
Prolonged swimming, recovery and repeat swimming performance of mature sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka exposed to moderate hypoxia and pentachlorophenol
.
J. Exp. Biol.
201
,
2183
-
2193
.
Friard
,
O.
and
Gamba
,
M.
(
2016
).
BORIS: a free, versatile open-source event-logging software for video/audio coding and live observations
.
Methods Ecol. Evol.
7
,
1325
-
1330
.
Fry
,
F. E. J.
and
Hart
,
J. S.
(
1948
).
The relation of temperature to oxygen consumption in the goldfish
.
Biol. Bull.
94
,
66
-
77
.
Gallaugher
,
P. E.
,
Thorarensen
,
H.
,
Kiessling
,
A.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2001
).
Effects of high intensity exercise training on cardiovascular function, oxygen uptake, internal oxygen transport and osmotic balance in chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) during critical speed swimming
.
J. Exp. Biol.
204
,
2861
-
2872
.
Gräns
,
A.
,
Jutfelt
,
F.
,
Sandblom
,
E.
,
Jönsson
,
E.
,
Wiklander
,
K.
,
Seth
,
H.
,
Olsson
,
C.
,
Dupont
,
S.
,
Ortega-Martinez
,
O.
,
Einarsdottir
,
I.
, et al. 
(
2014
).
Aerobic scope fails to explain the detrimental effects on growth resulting from warming and elevated CO2 in Atlantic halibut
.
J. Exp. Biol.
217
,
711
-
717
.
Green
,
S.
and
Askew
,
C. D.
(
2018
). O2peak
is an acceptable estimate of cardiorespiratory fitness but not
O2max.
J. Appl. Physiol.
125
,
229
-
232
.
Hammer
,
C.
(
1995
).
Fatigue and exercise tests with fish
.
Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Physiol.
112
,
1
-
20
.
Harter
,
T. S.
,
May
,
A. G.
,
Federspiel
,
W. J.
,
Supuran
,
C. T.
and
Brauner
,
C. J.
(
2018
).
Time course of red blood cell intracellular pH recovery following short-circuiting in relation to venous transit times in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss
.
Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.
315
,
R397
-
R407
.
Hughes
,
G. M.
,
Horimoto
,
M.
,
Kikuchi
,
Y.
,
Kakiuchi
,
Y.
and
Koyama
,
T.
(
1981
).
Short communications: blood-flow velocity in microvessels of the gill filaments of the goldfish (Carassius auratus L.)
.
J. Exp. Biol.
90
,
327
-
331
.
Jain
,
K. E.
,
Hamilton
,
J. C.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
1997
).
Use of a ramp velocity test to measure critical swimming speed in rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss)
.
Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Physiol.
117
,
441
-
444
.
Jain
,
K. E.
,
Birtwell
,
I. K.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
1998
).
Repeat swimming performance of mature sockeye salmon following a brief recovery period: a proposed measure of fish health and water quality
.
Can. J. Zool.
76
,
1488
-
1496
.
Lee
,
C. G.
,
Farrell
,
A. P.
,
Lotto
,
A.
,
Hinch
,
S. G.
and
Healey
,
M. C.
(
2003a
).
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption in adult sockeye (Oncorhynchus nerka) and coho (O. kisutch) salmon following critical speed swimming
.
J. Exp. Biol.
206
,
3253
-
3260
.
Lee
,
C. G.
,
Farrell
,
A. P.
,
Lotto
,
A.
,
MacNutt
,
M. J.
,
Hinch
,
S. G.
and
Healey
,
M. C.
(
2003b
).
The effect of temperature on swimming performance and oxygen consumption in adult sockeye (Oncorhynchus nerka) and coho (O. kisutch) salmon stocks
.
J. Exp. Biol.
206
,
3239
-
3251
.
Lucas
,
M. C.
and
Priede
,
I. G.
(
1992
).
Utilization of metabolic scope in relation to feeding and activity by individual and grouped zebrafish, Brachydanio rerio (Hamilton-Buchanan)
.
J. Fish Biol.
41
,
175
-
190
.
Marras
,
S.
,
Claireaux
,
G.
,
McKenzie
,
D. J.
and
Nelson
,
J. A.
(
2010
).
Individual variation and repeatability in aerobic and anaerobic swimming performance of European sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax
.
J. Exp. Biol.
213
,
26
-
32
.
Maren
,
T. H.
and
Swenson
,
E. R.
(
1980
).
A comparative study of the kinetics of the Bohr effect in vertebrates
.
J. Physiol.
303
,
535
-
547
.
McKenzie
,
D. J.
,
Cataldi
,
E.
,
Romano
,
P.
,
Owen
,
S. F.
,
Taylor
,
E. W.
and
Bronzi
,
P.
(
2001
).
Effects of acclimation to brackish water on the growth, respiratory metabolism, and swimming performance of young-of-the-year Adriatic sturgeon (Acipenser naccarii)
.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
58
,
1104
-
1112
.
Milligan
,
C. L.
(
1996
).
Metabolic recovery from exhaustive exercise in rainbow trout
.
Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Physiol.
113
,
51
-
60
.
Moyes
,
C. D.
,
Schulte
,
P. M.
and
Hochachka
,
P. W.
(
1992
).
Recovery metabolism of trout white muscle: role of mitochondria
.
Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.
262
,
R295
-
R304
.
Nelson
,
J.
,
Tang
,
Y.
and
Boutilier
,
R.
(
1996
).
The effects of salinity change on the exercise performance of two Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) populations inhabiting different environments
.
J. Exp. Biol.
199
,
1295
-
1309
.
Norin
,
T.
and
Clark
,
T. D.
(
2016
).
Measurement and relevance of maximum metabolic rate in fishes
.
J. Fish Biol.
88
,
122
-
151
.
Norin
,
T.
and
Malte
,
H.
(
2011
).
Repeatability of standard metabolic rate, active metabolic rate and aerobic scope in young brown trout during a period of moderate food availability
.
J. Exp. Biol.
214
,
1668
-
1675
.
Norin
,
T.
,
Malte
,
H.
and
Clark
,
T. D.
(
2014
).
Aerobic scope does not predict the performance of a tropical eurythermal fish at elevated temperatures
.
J. Exp. Biol.
217
,
244
-
251
.
Peake
,
S. J.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2004
).
Locomotory behaviour and post-exercise physiology in relation to swimming speed, gait transition and metabolism in free-swimming smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu)
.
J. Exp. Biol.
207
,
1563
-
1575
.
Peake
,
S. J.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2005
).
Postexercise physiology and repeat performance behaviour of free-swimming smallmouth bass in an experimental raceway
.
Physiol. Biochem. Zool.
78
,
801
-
807
.
Peake
,
S. J.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2006
).
Fatigue is a behavioural response in respirometer-confined smallmouth bass
.
J. Fish Biol.
68
,
1742
-
1755
.
Poole
,
D. C.
and
Jones
,
A. M.
(
2017
).
CORP: measurement of the maximum oxygen uptake (
O2max)
:
O2peak is no longer acceptable
.
Am. J. Physio. Heart Circ. Physiol.
122
,
997
-
1002
.
Randall
,
D. J.
,
Mense
,
D.
and
Boutilier
,
R. G.
(
1987
).
The effects of burst swimming on aerobic swimming in chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)
.
Mar. Behav. Physiol.
13
,
77
-
88
.
Reidy
,
S. P.
,
Nelson
,
J. A.
,
Tang
,
Y.
and
Kerr
,
S. R.
(
1995
).
Post-exercise metabolic rate in Atlantic cod and its dependence upon the method of exhaustion
.
J. Fish Biol.
47
,
377
-
386
.
Robergs
,
R. A.
,
Dwyer
,
D.
and
Astorino
,
T.
(
2010
).
Recommendations for improved data processing from expired gas analysis indirect calorimetry
.
Sports Med.
40
,
95
-
111
.
Rodgers
,
G. G.
,
Tenzing
,
P.
and
Clark
,
T. D.
(
2016
).
Experimental methods in aquatic respirometry: the importance of mixing devices and accounting for background respiration
.
J. Fish Biol.
88
,
65
-
80
.
Rome
,
L. C.
(
1990
).
Influence of temperature on muscle recruitment and muscle function in vivo
.
Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.
259
,
R210
-
R222
.
Rome
,
L. C.
,
Loughna
,
P. T.
and
Goldspink
,
G.
(
1984
).
Muscle fiber activity in carp as a function of swimming speed and muscle temperature
.
Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.
247
,
R272
-
R279
.
Rome
,
L. C.
,
Loughna
,
P. T.
and
Goldspink
,
G.
(
1985
).
Temperature acclimation: improved sustained swimming performance in carp at low temperatures
.
Science
228
,
194
-
196
.
Scarabello
,
M.
,
Heigenhauser
,
G. J.
and
Wood
,
C. M.
(
1992
).
Gas exchange, metabolite status and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption after repetitive bouts of exhaustive exercise in juvenile rainbow trout
.
J. Exp. Biol.
167
,
155
-
169
.
Steffensen
,
J. F.
(
2002
).
Metabolic cold adaptation of polar fish based on measurements of aerobic oxygen consumption: fact or artefact? Artefact!
Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Mol. Integr. Physiol.
132
,
789
-
795
.
Svendsen
,
J. C.
,
Tudorache
,
C.
,
Jordan
,
A. D.
,
Steffensen
,
J. F.
,
Aarestrup
,
K.
and
Domenici
,
P.
(
2010
).
Partition of aerobic and anaerobic swimming costs related to gait transitions in a labriform swimmer
.
J. Exp. Biol.
213
,
2177
-
2183
.
Svendsen
,
M. B. S.
,
Bushnell
,
P. G.
,
Christensen
,
E. A. F.
and
Steffensen
,
J. F.
(
2016
).
Sources of variation in oxygen consumption of aquatic animals demonstrated by simulated constant oxygen consumption and respirometers of different sizes
.
J. Fish Biol.
88
,
51
-
64
.
Sylvestre
,
E.-L.
,
Lapointe
,
D.
,
Dutil
,
J.-D.
and
Guderley
,
H.
(
2007
).
Thermal sensitivity of metabolic rates and swimming performance in two latitudinally separated populations of cod, Gadus morhua L
.
J. Comp. Physiol. B Biochem. Syst. Environ. Physiol.
177
,
447
-
460
.
Taylor
,
H. L.
,
Buskirk
,
E.
and
Henschel
,
A.
(
1955
).
Maximal oxygen intake as an objective measure of cardio-respiratory performance
.
J. Appl. Physiol.
8
,
73
-
80
.
Van Breda
,
E.
,
Schoffelen
,
P. F.
and
Plasqui
,
G.
(
2017
).
Clinical
O2peak is “part of the deal”
.
J. Appl. Physiol.
122
,
1370
-
1370
.
Wagner
,
G. N.
,
Kuchel
,
L. J.
,
Lotto
,
A.
,
Patterson
,
D. A.
,
Shrimpton
,
J. M.
,
Hinch
,
S. G.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2005
).
Routine and active metabolic rates of migrating adult wild sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka Walbaum) in seawater and freshwater
.
Physiol. Biochem. Zool.
79
,
100
-
108
.
Winkler
,
L. W.
(
1888
).
Die Bestimmung des im Wasser gelösten Sauerstoffes
.
Berichte Der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft
21
,
2843
-
2854
.
Zhang
,
Y.
and
Gilbert
,
M. J. H.
(
2017
).
Comment on ‘Measurement and relevance of maximum metabolic rate in fishes by Norin & Clark (2016)
’.
J. Fish Biol.
91
,
397
-
402
.
Zhang
,
Y.
,
Timmerhaus
,
G.
,
Anttila
,
K.
,
Mauduit
,
F.
,
Jørgensen
,
S. M.
,
Kristensen
,
T.
,
Claireaux
,
G.
,
Takle
,
H.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2016
).
Domestication compromises athleticism and respiratory plasticity in response to aerobic exercise training in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
.
Aquaculture
463
,
79
-
88
.
Zhang
,
Y.
,
Mauduit
,
F.
,
Farrell
,
A. P.
,
Chabot
,
D.
,
Ollivier
,
H.
,
Rio-Cabello
,
A.
,
Le Floch
,
S.
and
Claireaux
,
G.
(
2017
).
Exposure of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) to chemically dispersed oil has a chronic residual effect on hypoxia tolerance but not aerobic scope
.
Aquatic Toxicol.
191
,
95
-
104
.
Zhang
,
Y.
,
Claireaux
,
G.
,
Takle
,
H.
,
Jørgensen
,
S. M.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2018a
).
A three-phase excess post-exercise oxygen consumption in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar and its response to exercise training
.
J. Fish Biol.
92
,
1385
-
1403
.
Zhang
,
Y.
,
Healy
,
T. M.
,
Vandersteen
,
W.
,
Schulte
,
P. M.
and
Farrell
,
A. P.
(
2018b
).
A rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss strain with higher aerobic scope in normoxia also has superior tolerance of hypoxia
.
J. Fish Biol.
92
,
487
-
503
.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing or financial interests.

Supplementary information