Complex behavioral sequences such as courtship displays are often multimodal, and coordination between modalities is critically important. In learned and variable behavioral sequences such as songs, individual variability may also extend to multimodal coordination and the associations between modalities. However, individual variability in complex multimodal sequences and in coordination between distinct behaviors remains underexplored. Here, we report that budgerigars, which continuously learn and modify their complex warble songs, exhibit associations between body movements and song notes during courtship. Some associations are unique to individuals, and others are universal across individuals. Additionally, some individuals exhibit more unique associations than others. We also find that birds warbling in the absence of body movements emit all notes with broadly similar odds ratios. Our data suggests a hierarchy of associations, some individual-specific and others common to all individuals, between body movements and songs. We propose that these associations may be learnt and modified through social interactions, resulting in individual variability.
Individual-specific associations between warble song notes and body movements in budgerigar courtship displays
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There are many ways to produce goosebumps
In this Research Article, Jonathon McPhetres investigates the different stimuli that can produce goosebumps and how the body’s response is different depending on the trigger. This phenomenon highlights a shared trait with animals, suggesting that while goosebumps may seem less functional for humans, they reflect a complex interplay of physiological reactions. The author shows that goosebumps are more nuanced than previously thought.
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