TGFβ-activated kinase-1 (TAK1) is phosphorylated during both muscle growth and muscle wasting. To understand how this can lead to such opposite effects, we first performed multiplex kinase array of mouse embryonic stem cells with and without stimulation of TAK1 to determine its potential downstream targets. The phosphorylation of these targets was then compared in three different models: hypertrophic longissimus muscle of Texel Sheep, tibialis anterior muscle of mice with cancer-induced cachexia and C2C12-derived myofibers, with and without blockade of TAK1 phosphorylation. In both Texel sheep and in cancer-induced cachexia, phosphorylation of both TAK1 and p38 was increased. Whereas p90RSK was increased in Texel sheep but not cachexia and the phosphorylation of HSP27 and total Jnk were increased in cachexia but not Texel. To understand this further, we examined the expression of these proteins in C2C12 cells as they differentiated into myotubes, with and without blockade of TAK1 phosphorylation. In C2C12 cells, decreased phosphorylation of TAK1 leads to reduced phosphorylation of p38, JNK, and HSP27 after 16 hours and muscle fiber hypertrophy after three days. However, continuous blockade of this pathway leads to muscle fiber failure, suggesting that the timing of TAK1 activation controls the expression of context-dependent targets.
Analysis of potential TAK1/Map3k7 phosphorylation targets in hypertrophy and cachexia models of skeletal muscle
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There are many ways to produce goosebumps
In this Research Article, Jonathon McPhetres investigates the different stimuli that can produce goosebumps and how the body’s response is different depending on the trigger. This phenomenon highlights a shared trait with animals, suggesting that while goosebumps may seem less functional for humans, they reflect a complex interplay of physiological reactions. The author shows that goosebumps are more nuanced than previously thought.
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